al-Badʿ [ancient Madyan]

Identified with ancient Madyan on the basis of Arabic sources, this oasis in north-western Arabia was already occupied in the Prehistoric period and comprises a rich variety of pre-Islamic and Islamic archaeological remains.

Geographical context

In the past, the oasis of al-Badʿ, located in the province of Tabūk (Saudi Arabia), controlled the most direct access to ʿAqaba and Jordan-Palestine from the eastern Red Sea coast. Due to the steep mountains of the Arabian Shield (Ḥismā plateau), extending to the coast of the Gulf of ʿAqaba (Clark 1987), the caravan track – and the pilgrimage road during medieval times – had to follow an inland route along the Wādī ʿAfāl (and Wādī al-Abyaḍ to the north), passing by al-Badʿ at its outlet. In the south, Wādī ʿAfāl opens onto the Lisān Quaternary Basin (also called 'Wādī ʿAfāl triangle'), which continues down to the Red Sea coast and the major harbours of ʿAynūna (identified with no consensus with Leuke Kome) and Sharma.

The oasis and caravan stop (c. 220 m a.s.l.) is about 7 km long (north-south) and between 0.5 and 2 km wide (Fig. 1). Ancient settlements stand on both sides of the central alluvial corridor of the Wādī ʿAfāl. On the eastern bank, archaeological areas (al-Qalaʿ, al-Rudayda, al-Burj, al-Malqaṭa, and al-ʿAdafa) are hemmed in by the Jabal al-Ṣafrāʾ, made up of conglomerates, marl, gypsum, and coral limestone (Badʿ formation). On the western bank, the sites are delimited by the Jabal Muṣallā, composed of poor-quality sandstone and marl (Nutaysh formation), in which the Nabataean tombs of Mughayr Shuʿayb were dug. The antique town (al-Malḥa) and the area of al-Aṣīfir stand partly on top of this formation, and on a thick, elongated terrace of conglomerates. Only the Islamic site of al-Malqaṭa and that of al-ʿAdafa are located in the wadi bed, on top of an alluvial terrace.

Identification and historiography

Most scholars agree with the identification of this oasis with ancient Madian (also Madyan, Midian, Modiana, Madiama) (Musil 1926: 109, 278–279; Robin and al-Ghabbān 2018; others proposed Ḍubā or al-Qurayya; for a recent synthesis on Madian, see Tebes 2020, Charloux et al. 2021). The ethnonym Madian (or tribal confederation) mentioned in the Bible and in the Qurʾān in relation to Moses and Jethro (sometimes identified with Prophet Shuʿayb), must be differentiated from the toponyms Madiama and Madyan encountered in Greek and Arabic sources. To date, no archaeological data confirm the identification of al-Badʿ with ancient Madian. Nevertheless, the toponym Madiama in classical sources is generally located on the eastern coast of the Red Sea (Flav. Jos., Antiquities II, 11; Ptol., Geog. 6.7.27), and Arab scholars have confirmed the identification of al-Badʿ with Madyan is confirmed by Arab scholars since the ninth century —Madyan is placed between the caravan stations of Sharaf al-Baʿal and ʿAynuna on the pilgrimage route between Egypt and Mecca (Charloux et al. 2021).

Past descriptions of the oasis of al-Badʿ focused mainly on the monumental Nabataean tombs with rock-cut facades in the Mughayr Shuʿayb area (Rüppel 1829: 219–220; Burton 1879: 79–111; Musil 1926: 108–118; Philby 1957: 211–222, 257–260; Badaiwi 2011, Nehmé et al. 2015: 49–53) (Fig. 2). Occasionally, other archaeological areas have also been described, in particular al-Burj, al-Malqaṭa, and al-Malḥa (Burton 1879, Philby 1957, Parr et al. 1972, al-Anṣārī et al. 2002, al-Ghabbān 2011: 201–209). A joint Saudi-French project began a comprehensive survey of the oasis in 2017 and excavations in 2018 (Charloux et al. 2021).

History of the site

Prehistory

Given the relatively low density of Prehistoric sites known in the region (Crassard et al. 2020), the Neolithic presence in the oasis is remarkable. A seemingly permanent/semi-permanent occupation within the confines of the oasis dates to the first half of the seventh millennium BCE. A small community settled on a high terrace of conglomerates at the al-Aṣīfir site. A sounding revealed a rich organic assemblage, including wood-charcoal fragments and faunal and botanical remains, an abundant lithic assemblage, as well as shells worked for bead production. Although no architectural remains have been identified in the sounding, the finds seem to indicate a fully developed agro-pastoral society in the oasis nearly 9000 years ago.

Late fourth millennium BCE

This first occupation was followed by a long gap of four millennia in the archaeological record. Surveys and excavations on the site of al-Rudayda, on the other side of Wādī ʿAfāl, attest to the establishment of a village (approximately 3 ha) in the Early Bronze Age on the fringes of the agricultural areas in the valley. The archaeological assemblage from the late fourth millennium BCE (mainly pottery and lithics) uncovered in stone-built dwellings points to links with the EB1 Southern Levant and the transition to an 'oasis economy' (Fig. 3).

Late second and first millennia BCE

The Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age (end of the second millennium BCE) — a period previously known as the "Madianite period" — was characterized by Qurayyah Painted Ware collected during previous surveys (Parr et al. 1972: 33; Ingraham et al. 1981: 74–75, pl. 81, no. 4 [site 200-84], no. 14 [200-82: Mughayr Shuʿayb]). A recent sounding in al-Rudayda yielded the same Qurayyah Painted Ware in a sealed context,as well as evidence of an extensive domestic occupation in the second half of the first millennium BCE (Charloux et al. 2021). The layout of the remains visible on the surface of al-Rudayda South outlines a difficult-to-define settlement, extending over approximately 200 × 80 m on the edge of the natural gypsum terrace and overlooking the palm grove (Fig. 4). The settlement seems to be made up of a combination of semi-buried dwellings carved into the bedrock and standing structures.

Remains of a dense Late Hellenistic settlement at the end of the first millennium, composed of terraces, thick walls, and domestic dwellings, were uncovered further north in a narrow gulley hidden behind the recently uncovered citadel of al-Qalaʿ. This location protected the residential area and restricted access to the settlement. The citadel of al-Qalaʿ consists of a fortified promontory and is completely covered by stone structures; the large upper terrace, almost 60 m high, dominates the surroundings. Not far to the east, a pre-Islamic necropolis comprises rectangular tombs on the heights of Jabal Safra.

From Nabataean to Byzantine periods

From the late 1st cent. BCE - early 1st cent. CE, the occupation seems to change radically from what was a hidden settlement to a prosperous open town and trade station. The site comprised a medium-sized agglomeration, al-Malḥa (max. 850 x 300 m; approximately 26 ha), surrounded by necropolises and a series of small scattered hamlets. Although the settlement in al-Malḥa is attributed to the Nabataean period, most remains from the upper levels date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods. Today the site is subdivided into two parts by a small wadi. In the southern part,a large tell (approximately 350 × 200 m) was probably a popular residential area from Nabataean to Byzantine periods. Below modern scattered structures, the gypsum walls outline a residential compound of houses with small rooms. The northern part of al-Malḥa revealed numerous remains of walls on the surface along with a wide cistern (approximately 25 × 20 m). The excavations exposed a large building (25 × 26 m) featuring 17 rooms with daily-life material from the upper Byzantine phase (Fig. 5). In the lower phase, the layout evokes a typical "courtyard house" from the Nabataean period, with a private bathroom. A bronze lamp decorated with acanthus leaves and two dolphins was uncovered in one of the basins. This suggests that the building accommodated elite individuals, not far from their monumental tombs.

Al-Badʿ is indeed one of the few Nabataean sites with tombs with rock-cut façades. Eight out of the 31 monumental tombs recorded in Mughayr Shuʿayb and al-Aṣīfir (Fig. 6) have a rock-cut decorated façade (ca. 5–6 m high and 3.5–4 m wide). Architectural decoration is less elaborate than in Hegra and Petra, probably due to the poor quality of the local coarse-grained sandstone. This also explains the scarcity of inscriptions in the area (Milik in Parr et al. 1972: 59; Nehmé et al. 2015: 49–53). In addition to monumental tombs, archaeological and geomagnetic surveys revealed the presence of more than 700 pit graves scattered along the base of the Jabal Muṣallā and down to the area of al-Aṣīfir and al-Rudayda on the eastern bank.

A fragment of a monumental Latin inscription (Parr et al. 1972: 33, pl. 17; Ingraham et al. 1981: 76, pl. 82 [site 200-83]; Nehmé et al. 2015: 50, n. 98, Villeneuve 2021) showed that this part of Nabataea was annexed by Rome in the 2nd century CE. This limestone lintel comes from a public building, and demonstrates a strong Roman presence in the region. Recently, the identification of the remains of a military fort with rectangular towers (at least 75 x 35 m) in Mughayr Shuʿayb (Fig. 7) confirmed this military presence in the oasis, backed up by the discovery of a 142 CE military diploma mentioning an auxiliary soldier in 141–142 CE under Antoninus Pius (Villeneuve 2021).

The Roman army may have departed before the end of the 4th cent. CE since the toponym "Madiama" is absent from the Notitia Dignitatum. The city of al-Malḥa, however, appeared to remain occupied at least until the 4th century CE. A Jewish-Palestinian funerary inscription in Aramaic (O.W10010-1/BDJPA1), reused in the masonry of an Early Islamic building, evidences the construction of a tomb in 326 CE.

In the Late Pre-Islamic period, Romans supported local foederati rulers to stabilize the advanced margins of the Empire. Arab-Islamic sources suggest that the region of al-Badʿ was inhabited by the tribe of Judhām (Hasson 1995: 9, 13–14). This tribe was present throughout the Ḥismā, and was one of the Arab allies of the Byzantines who fought against the troops of the Prophet Muḥammad at Muʾta in 629 and Yarmūk in 636, before they converted to Islam (Bosworth 1984: 56). The Judhām region was conquered by Zayd bin Hāritha, while Judhāmites signed a treaty with the Prophet at nearby Maqnā (Bosworth 1984: 58–61).

Islamic era

Two sites currently indicate sedentary occupation at the oasis during the Early Islamic period: al-Malqaṭa and al-Malḥa North. In al-Malqaṭa, a fortified urban area (ca. 220 × 230 m) comprising a quadrangular fort beside a large cistern was occupied from the Umayyad to the Fatimid period (7th–10th centuries). In al-Mālḥa, a large irregular rectangular public construction (about 60 × 40 m) was identified, containing material from the 7th–8th centuries (Fig. 8).

The oasis appeared to decline from the 11th century onwards with a definite yet gradual contraction of settlement during the Islamic period (al-Ghabbān 2011: 203). As stated by al-Idrīsī in the 12th century (Nuzhat al-mushtāq [trad. Jaubert 1836]: 333), Madyan "offers very few resources, and the trade is miserable".

From the Mamluk (13th and 14th cent.) to the Ottoman periods, a small pilgrimage station on the Egyptian road developed in the area of al-Burj, including a small fort controlling the area surrounding Biʾr Saʿīdanī and a large cistern near other hydraulic structures (Fig. 9).

In the 1950s, western travellers reported the presence of the Masaʾid tribe living in tents and endemic malaria (Philby 1957). Several villages with mudbrick houses still existed at that time in the areas of Dīsah, al-Malḥa (Fig. 10), and north of al-Qalaʿ. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, human settlement developed around the protected archaeological areas, while the town of New al-Badʿ was created a decade ago, 6 km south of the oasis.

Guillaume Charloux, Samer Sahlah, Walid al-Badaiwi, Abdulaziz Alorini and Abdu Elah Al-Tarib

References and suggested reading

Sources

• Al-Idrīsī, Nuzhat al-mushtāq: A. Jaubert, 1836. Géographie d'Édrisi (Kitāb nuzhat al-mushtāq fī ikhtirāq al-afāq, taʾlīf al-sharīf al-Idrīsī), vol. 1. Paris: Imprimerie royale.

Studies

• al-Anṣārī, A.T., S.A. Rāshid, A.I. al-Ghabbān, A. al-Saud, K. Eskoubi & M. Khan 2002. Al-Bid': History and Archaeology. Riyadh: Ministry of Education.
• Bauzou, T. 2016. Les chouettes de Hégra, un monnayage du Hijâz à l'époque hellénistique. Rapport préliminaire, in L. Nehmé (ed.) Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ Archaeological Project. Report on the 2016 Season: 84–95. Riyadh: Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage.
• Bosworth, C.E. 1984. Madyan Shuʿayb in pre-Islamic and early Islamic lore and history. JSS 29: 53–64.
• Badaiwi, W.A. 2011. al-Madāfin al-manḥūta fī al-ṣakhr bi-Wāḥat al-Bidʿ (Maghāʾir Shuʿayb): dirāsa miʿmārīya muqārana. Silsilat kitāb al-āthār 2. Riyadh: Al-hayʾat al-ʿāmmah lil-siyāḥa wa-l-āthār.
• Burton, R.F. 1879. The land of Midian (revisited). 2 vols. Cambridge: Kegan Paul & Co.
• Charloux, G., S.A. Sahlah & W.A. Badaiwi 2021. Madian revealed? Assessing the history and archaeology of the oasis of al-Badʿ in north-western Arabia. Sem. Clas. 14: 97-142. DOI: 10.1484/J.SEC.5.129522.
• Clark, M.D. 1987. Geologic map of the Al Bad quadrangle, sheet 28 A, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. GM–81, scale 1:250,000. Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, Deputy Ministry for Mineral Resources.
• Crassard, R., Y.H. Hilbert, G. Charloux, S.A. Sahlah & W.A. Badaiwi 2020. New Palaeolithic sites around al-Badʿ, north-western Saudi Arabia. Supplement to Volume 50 of the PSAS 50: 1-13.
• al-Ghabbān, A.I. 2011. Les deux routes syrienne et égyptienne de pèlerinage au nord-ouest de l'Arabie Saoudite. Vol. 1 (Textes arabes et études islamiques, 44). Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orientale.
• Hasson, I. 1995. Judhām entre la Jāhiliyya et l'Islam. Studia Islamica 81: 5–42.
• Ingraham, M., T. Johnson, B. Rihani & I. Shatla 1981. Preliminary Report on a Reconnaissance Survey of the Northwestern Province 1981 (with a note on a brief survey of the Northern Province). Atlal 5: 59–84.
• Musil, A. 1926. The Northern Ḥeǧāz: a topographical itinerary (Oriental explorations and studies, 1). New York: American Geographical Society.
• Nehmé, L., J.-C. Bessac, J.-P. Braun & J. Dentzer-Feydy 2015. Les tombeaux nabatéens de Hégra. 2 vols. Paris: Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres.
• Parr, P.J., G.L. Harding & J.E. Dayton 1972. Preliminary survey in N.W. Arabia, 1968. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology 10: 23–61.
• Philby, H.S.J.B. 1957. The Land of Midian. London: Benn.
• Robin, C. & A.I. al-Ghabbān 2017. Une première mention de Madyan dans un texte épigraphique d'Arabie. CRAI 2017(1): 363–396.
• Rüppell, E. 1829. Reisen in Nubien, Kordofan, und dem peträischen Arabien. Frankfurt-am-Main: F. Wilmans.
• Tebes, J.M. 2020. Midian. Biblical Studies. DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195393361-0271.
• Villeneuve, F. 2021. Un fragment de diplôme militaire romain découvert à al-Badʿ (BDLat1). Sem. Clas. 14: 143–149. DOI: 10.1484/J.SEC.5.129523.

_{Alternative spellings: al-Bada; al-Bad; alBad; al-Bid', Madian; Madyān; Madyân; Madyan; Midian; Modiana; Madiama; Mdyn; Mughayr Shuʿayb, Mughayr Shuayb}