Rock Art [Arabian]

Rock art constitutes one of the main sources of information on pre- and protohistoric societies in Arabia. It also provides an invaluable iconographic corpus for the study of “desert peoples” and their environment during pre-Islamic and Islamic times.

Despite its decisive role in the knowledge of past societies, rock art — which designates all the works of art produced on rock walls (open air or in a cave) — is still a poorly studied artistic vector in Arabia. Current documentation remains very incomplete in relation to the extent of the geographic area, and it is extremely difficult to attempt a well dated and comprehensive overview of the engravings (e.g., Nayeem 2000).

Historiography

Difficult access to several regions in the 20th century, in particular Yemen and Saudi Arabia, the absence of systematic surveys and publication of raw data (including exhaustive site studies, precise locations, dimensions, comparable stylistic criteria, etc.), partially explain the limited and sparse documentation. Despite the interest of several travellers in the 19th and 20th centuries (e.g., Jaussen and Savignac, Euting, Huber, Philby, etc.), scientific research on rock art in Arabia was only initiated in the 1960s (Anati 1968 [Philby–Ryckmans–Lippens expedition in 1951–1952]; Clarke 1975) and only began to develop in the late 1970s (e.g., Khan 2007). These first inventories nevertheless show that Arabia, a vast area of ​​travel routes and human settlements, contains one of the greatest densities of rock art in the world. While the intense economic and demographic growth of the region has led to the destruction and endangerment of numerous panels and rock sites, three rock sites, Jubba, Shuwaymis and Hima, are currently inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Characteristics of Arabian rock art

Geology and choice of locations

The majority of the petroglyphs are located in areas of sedimentary formations — which are easily carved — in particular, the sandstone piedmonts of the Arabian shield located to the west of the Arabian Peninsula, from Yemen to Ḥijāz (Nayeem 2000). Volcanic and limestone plateaus, sandy or gravelly desert areas, as well as coastal plains, are generally less propitious to rock art, with a few exceptions, for example the al-Ḥajar mountain range (Oman, UAE) or Qatar (Fossati 2019; Ziolkowski 2007; Pelling et al. 2015). To date, the very rich rock art of Yemen remains largely untapped (Inizan & Rachad 2007; Jung 1991; Fig. 1).

The rock engravings, including inscriptions, are generally situated on passage routes, often in topographically protected places and near water resources. The favoured rock facades comprise large flat vertical panels in the lower part of rock massifs or on isolated outcrops and boulders, clearly visible to passers-by, (Fig. 2). The stone engravers focused on surfaces with dark patinas — linked to natural manganese deposits — to create a strong contrast with the underlying material once the rock was incised.

Technical aspects

Petroglyphs are almost always made by simple incision or pecking, rarely by scraping / abrading (Fig. 3). The figures can be merely traced, but also fully or partially pecked. Painting is rarer, mainly encountered at this stage in the southern half of the Arabian Peninsula and essentially in parietal contexts. Rock relief — carving in bas- and high-relief — is exceptional and can be attributed to the historic political entities controlling the oases: the relief from Nabonidus in Ḥāʾiṭ, the carved lions of Dadan tombs, the magnificent Nabataean tombs (and associated installations: betyls, etc.) in Madāʾin Ṣāliḥ, al-Badʿ and al-Dissa, and also perhaps the anthropomorphic representations of Ḥasat Bin Salt in Oman (Coleman’s Rock – Fossati 2019). In this artistic context, the prehistoric bas- and high-reliefs of life-size camels and equids from the Camel Site (Jawf province) are quite extraordinary (Charloux et al. 2018, 2020).

Dating rock art

Dating rock art is an ongoing problem. Chronologies are predominantly based on the study of the relative superimpositions of petroglyphs and changes in content and patina varnish (Anati 1968–1974; Khan 1998; Guagnin et al. 2017). Long-distance artistic comparisons, as well as associations with nearby inscriptions, are also used (Robin 2018). Some researchers have focused on domestication — as indicated by leashes, reins, shackles or because animals are mounted — or on the extinction of the depicted animals for proposing termini post quem, but these proposals are still a source of debate (Robin 2018 vs Guagnin et al. 2017: 145). Bronze Age rock art is mainly dated according to the weapon types used by human figures (pommel crescent dagger and sword, bows, etc. — See Anati 1968–1974, Newton & Zarins 2000), sometimes found in contemporaneous tombs, although the duration of their representation and use is unknown.

Some archaeometric examinations have also been attempted but they are still experimental and uncertain (Bednarik & Khan 2005; 2009; Macholdt et al. 2018). The understanding of the landscape development of the rock art in relation with dated nearby archaeological settlements offers other useful indicators for dating petroglyphs, but must be considered with caution. It is also important to bear in mind that some modifications of ancient petroglyphs occurred in the last 40 years (Robin 2018: 360–365).

Today, Arabian rock art can be roughly subdivided into three main periods according to generally accepted stylistic criteria:

1. Pre-and Protohistory (Neolithic to Bronze Age, ca. 9000 BCE to 1200 BCE);
2. Pre-Islamic period (Iron Age until Late Antiquity, 1200 BCE to 600 CE);
3. Islamic period. More precise dating requires specific and relevant chronological evidence (Guagnin et al. 2017).

Main subjects through time

The vast iconographic corpus in Arabia illustrates the daily life of lapicidae and depicts the environment in which they evolved. The engraved individuals, animals and objects are depicted in different ways and vary according to the periods and locations: profile, front view, bias or mixed, although profile representations dominate. Petroglyphs are often engraved near countless inscriptions and graffiti that sometimes mention the names of the engravers or the illustrated animals (Robin 2018; Charloux et al. 2020). The ‘myths’ linked to these representations are, at this stage, difficult to grasp and have been little discussed.

Humans

The gender of the depicted human figures is often uncertain, and sexual characters (phallus, breasts, etc.) are not systematically illustrated. In addition, in the absence of written identification or significant criteria, simple individuals cannot be distinguished from mythical, ancestral or divine entities.

Male figures

Men are generally represented standing or riding their mounts, rarely seated, while styles of depiction vary significantly depending on the period. The most detailed male figures, and often the largest, generally appear in the pre-/ protohistoric era. They display complex hairstyles, sometimes clothing details (loincloth, necklaces, belt, even animal masks) and weapons. The most famous depictions are known from the Najrān region and Jubba, near Ḥāʾil, in particular, the so-called “Jubbah style” (Anati 1968–1974, Khan 2007, Guagnin et al. 2017) (Fig. 4). More recent male figures are often small and schematic, consisting of a few incised lines with little or no attention to detail. There are some exceptions, however, such as isolated soldiers and horsemen of the Mesopotamian and Himyarite armies, represented (or imitated) according to more official and/or exogenous conventions (Macdonald 2009).

The male figures exhibit weapons that reflect hunting and warfare practices at various periods: shield and sword with pommel, but also bow and arrow, spear in prehistoric and pre-Islamic times, shield, mace and curved sabre in Islamic times, rifle in modern periods (Fig. 5).

Fighting and hunting scenes

During the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, the male figures take part in innumerable combat scenes exhibiting horsemen and infantrymen fighting on their mounts, dromedaries or horses (Fig. 6). Commemorated in ancient texts (Robin 2018: 327-332), hunting scenes are also common, showing men mounted or on the ground fighting against ferocious animals (felines) or catching wild game (ostrich, ibex, etc.). They also participate in herding scenes, driving cattle to pasture probably in pre-and protohistoric periods.

Female figures

Female figures are depicted standing in front view, with long hair, arms and hands raised, fingers apart (Fig. 7). Their sexual attributes are sometimes indicated: wide hips, breasts and sex (hole or triangle). The interpretation of these figures as anthropomorphic representations of deities has been discarded in favour of women practising song, music and dance or also “cheerleader” activities, to encourage the warriors during their fights (Macdonald 2012). These representations date back to the pre-Islamic and Islamic era, as evidenced by the surrounding graffiti.

In some cases, the female figure is illustrated in a childbirth scene, according to a widespread type of representation encountered over long distances: front view, legs folded and infant emerging from the vagina (Macdonald 2012). Sometimes the infant is replaced by a phallus. Sexual scenes are indeed common in Arabia: usually, the size of the man’s phallus is excessive and pointed towards the woman (Fig. 7).

Hands and feet

Generally associated with the protective “hand of Fatima”, many hands (open palm and fingers apart, more exceptionally with arms and/or forearms) are found in Arabia. Going back to pre-Islamic as well as to Islamic periods, they have a broader meaning of forgiveness and mercy, as attested by the Arabic formulas sometimes engraved in their centre (Fig. 8). Isolated feet or sandals are also common, often engraved on the horizontal surface, representing the most obvious traces of the passage of the engravers.

Animals

Animals known from the archaeozoological inventories of excavated sites in the region form the majority of rock art representations. The panels illustrate one or more animals, generally in hunting scenes and simple parades. Due to their sheer volume and variety, they are difficult to classify stylistically and regionally.

Camel

The Camel (Camelus dromedarius) is one of the most common animals in Arabian rock art. They are depicted in various styles and sizes, from small linear and geometric/abstract images to large naturalistic engravings or sculptures, in a wide number of settings (fights, hunts, parades) (Fig. 9). A common convention consists in distinguishing male from female camels by the disposition of their tails (down tails for males and curled-up tails for females – Charloux et al. 2020).

One of the main issues related to camels concerns the distinction between wild and domesticated species, but this question often remains unsolved.

Surprisingly, dromedaries are never depicted loaded with burdens in caravans in historic times, which suggests that they were mainly represented by mobile pastoral populations living in the desert and not by caravan drivers.

The classification of engravings of large-sized camels (above 1.20 m high) led to the identification of six main regional traditions in western Arabia from Prehistoric to pre-Islamic periods, showing a widespread and long-lasting artistic custom with possible symbolic and tribal functions (Charloux et al. 2020).

Equid

Equids (donkey, wild ass, horse) have been present in Arabia since Prehistory, although their domestic use is only attested belatedly by archaeology. In prehistoric times, wild asses are depicted in profile and often entirely spiked, sometimes with parallel marks above the body representing the mane (Fig. 10). In historic periods, horses are mounted, sometimes harnessed, and take part in fighting and hunting scenes (Macdonald 2009). The stylized horses of the “North Arabian Artistic Style” with their long-curved crests are particularly distinctive. They are widespread in the region of Taymāʾ in the mid-1st mill. BCE (Olsen 2017). Other relevant conventions are known from the region of Bir Ḥimà: “realistic prancing horse with erect front legs, before Islam” and horses represented “in a stylized way, galloping, with the front and rear legs drawing an arc, after Islam” (Robin 2017: 338) (Figs 5-6).

Bovine

The bovines — wild aurochs hunting or domesticated cattle herding — form an extensive rock art corpus. The date of their extinction, after the Holocene optimum or much later, remains debated and probably varies depending on the regions considered: South vs desertic Arabia (Robin 2018; Guagnin et al. 2017). Several iconographic traditions stand out at this stage (Fig. 11):

1. Bovines in profile with the head in the extension of the body and horns in front view, in particular in Jubba and Shuwaymis, must be attributed to prehistoric times, probably from the Neolithic.
2. Bovines with the head in profile and horns bent forward, encountered especially in the Tabuk region (Khan 2007: 118–119).
3. Realistic bovines from the Najrān region, with bodies often decorated with geometric designs, sometimes with lyre-shaped horns, and associated with South Arabian inscriptions (Khan 2007: 126; Robin 2018: 243) (Fig. 11).
4. Stylized naturalistic bovines, possible representations of Iron Age deities, present in al-ʿUla and Taymāʾ (Hausleiter 2012) (Fig. 11).
5. Schematized bulls’ heads in front view, with no body, possible divine symbols, found in the region of Taymāʾ during the Iron Age (Hausleiter 2012).

Other bovids

Apart from bovines, other cattle are sometimes recognizable by their distinct attributes, most often the shape of the horns: curved backwards and sometimes serrated for ibexes/goats, long and straight for oryx and gazelles, double spiral twisted for the kudu (Fig. 12). The ibex seems particularly common, but statistical studies would be useful to evaluate regional variations.

Ostrich and bird

The Arabian ostrich (Struthio camelus syriacus) is common in historic periods (up to the 20th century), usually depicted on parade, but also alone or hunted by humans (Fig. 13). Other birds (eagle, etc.) are very scarce.

Dog

Dogs are represented at all periods of rock art, always in a pack, with the tail turned upside down. From the Early Holocene onwards, they were domesticated and participated in tracking wild animals (Fig. 10), as sometimes indicated by the leashes held by hunters.

Feline

Easily recognizable, felines are represented in historic times with a large body, a long tail, four outstretched legs and long claws (Fig. 13). An oversized head seems to distinguish a lion from a panther.

Reptile

A simple more or less curvilinear engraving illustrates a snake, according to a common practice in the Gulf but also in Western Arabia. Lizards (Uromastyx sp.), which were eaten, are depicted from above and sometimes dissected (Fig. 13).

Elephant

Few elephant engravings are known in Arabia, perhaps only in the Najrān and al-ʿUla regions, and their identification remains uncertain. They are coarse and small in size, recognizable by their trunk and the position of the human figure at the rear of the head. These original depictions have been associated with the so-called “expedition of the elephant” against Makka in the 6th century CE.

Others

Desert Kite

Several rock representations of Desert kites are known in western Arabia, from Yemen to Jordan (Fig. 14). During prehistoric times, these gigantic hunting traps made up of stone walls leading to pits are found over the whole Near East and Arabia.

Date palm

Conventionally, the date palm is represented by a long vertical line in the centre and a succession of curved lines (for the palms) on its upper part, occasionally with small balls representing the dates (Fig. 14).

Chariot

Several depictions of chariots are known in north-western Arabia, probably linked to Iron Age Mesopotamian artistic conventions (Macdonald 2009). They are represented in two ways: either seen from above, with the two front wheels linked by one (or several) longitudinal bar(s) pulled by animals; or in profile, with one visible large wheel, and a figure on the platform directing the horse with the reins.

Geometric design and wasm

The most common geometric patterns are circular, often with lines radiating from the circle, with various decorations and contents, which probably symbolize the solar disk. Other patterns made of agglomerated circles are more enigmatic and could represent the plan of desert stone dwellings. Monograms (wusūm), which are tribal signs, are very common.

Games, boats, houses, musical instruments and modern designs

Among the usual items depicted in Arabian rock art, board games, made of two rows of small holes dug on a flat horizontal surface, are recurrent. Boats are frequent in the Gulf, especially in Qatar. More rarely, we observe recent objects, such as musical instruments, houses, cars or trucks, and possibly other unique figures (Fig. 14).

Guillaume Charloux

References and suggested reading

• Bednarik, R.G. & M. Khan 2005. Scientific studies of Saudi Arabian rock art. Rock Art Research 22: 49–81.
• Clarke C. 1975. Rock Art in the Oman Mountains. PSAS 5: 13–19. www.jstor.org/stable/41223286
• Charloux, G., H. al-Khalifah, T. al-Malki, R. Mensan & R. Schwerdtner 2018. The art of rock relief in ancient Arabia: new evidence from the Jawf Province. Antiquity 92/361: 165–182. DOI: 10.15184/aqy.2017.221.
• Charloux, G., M. Guagnin & J. Norris 2020. Large-sized camel depictions in western Arabia: A characterisation across time and space. PSAS 50: 85–108.
• Fossati, A.E. 2019. Messages from the Past: Rock Art of Al-Hajar Mountains. Oxford: Archaeopress.
• Guagnin, M., C. Shipton, M. al‐Rashid, F. Moussa, S. El‐Dossary, M. Bin Sleimah, A. Alsharekh & M. Petraglia 2017. An illustrated prehistory of the Jubbah oasis: Reconstructing Holocene occupation patterns in north‐western Saudi Arabia from rock art and inscriptions. AAE 28: 138–152. DOI: 10.1111/aae.12089.
• Hausleiter, A. 2012. Divine Representations at Taymāʾ, in I. Sachet & C.J. Robin (eds) Dieux et déesses d’Arabie: Images et représentations. Actes de la table ronde tenue au Collège de France (Paris) les 1er et 2 octobre 2007 (O&M, 7): 299–338. Paris: De Boccard.
• Inizan, M.L. & M. Rachad 2007. Art rupestre et peuplements préhistoriques au Yémen. (Histoire et société de la péninsule Arabique). Sanaa: CEFAS.
• Jung, M. 1991. Research on Rock Art in North Yemen. Napoli: Istituto Universitario Orientale.
• Khan, M. 2007. Rock art of Saudi Arabia across twelve thousand years. Riyadh: Ministry of Education, Deputy Ministry of Antiquities & Museums.
• Macdonald, M.C.A. 2012. Goddesses, dancing girls or cheerleaders? Perceptions of the divine and the female form in the rock art of pre-Islamic North Arabia, in I. Sachet & C.J. Robin (eds) Dieux et déesses d’Arabie: Images et représentations. Actes de la table ronde tenue au Collège de France (Paris) les 1er et 2 octobre 2007 (O&M, 7): 261–297. Paris: De Boccard.
• Macdonald, M.C.A. 2009. Wheels in a land of camels: another look at the chariot in Arabia. AAE 20: 156–184. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0471.2009.00312.x.
• Macholdt, D.S., A.M. Al-Amir, H.T. Tuffaha, K.P. Jochum, O.A. Meinrat 2018. Growth of desert varnish on petroglyphs from Jubbah and Shuwaymis, Ha’il region, Saudi Arabia. The Holocene 28(9): 1495–1511. DOI: 10.1177/095968361877707.
• Nayeem, M.A. 2000. The Rock Art of Arabia: Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, the Emirates & Yemen. Hyderabad: Hyderabad Publishers.
• Newton, L.S. & J. Zarins 2000. Aspects of Bronze Age Art of Southern Arabia: The Pictorial Landscape and Its Relation to Economic and Social-Political Status. AAE 11: 154–179. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0471.2000.aae110202.x.
• Olsen, S.L. 2017. Insight on the Ancient Arabian Horse from North Arabian Petroglyphs. Arabian Humanities 8, online issue: http://journals.openedition.org/cy/3282. DOI: 10.4000/cy.3282.
• Pelling, R., R.T.H. Cuttler, F.A. al-Naimi, et al. 2015. A re-examination of the petroglyphs of Qatar. PSAS 45: 217–231. www.jstor.org/stable/43783635
• Robin, C.J. 2018. La faune de l’Arabie heureuse: les textes et les images rupestres de Ḥimà, in J. Jouanna, C. Robin & M. Zink (eds) Vie et climat d’Hésiode à Montesquieu (Cahiers de la villa « Kérylos », 29): 319–384. Paris: De Boccard.
• Ziolkowski, M.C. 2007. Rock on art: petroglyph sites in the United Arab Emirates. AAE 18: 208–238. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0471.2007.00262.x.

_{Alternate spellings: Engraving, Graffito, Graffiti}